Home Ingredients Lemon Fruit and Juice (Citrus limon)
Kidney/Urinary TractMetabolic Health

Lemon Fruit and Juice (Citrus limon)

Citrus limon
Evidence Level
Limited
8 Clinical Trials
6 Documented Benefits
2/5 Evidence Score

Lemon (Citrus limon) is a citrus fruit used mostly for its juice, which is one of the richest food sources of citric acid: fresh juice holds about 1.44 g per ounce. Raw lemon juice also supplies about 39 mg of vitamin C per 100 g, so the juice of one lemon gives roughly 19 mg. Most human research on lemon looks at urine chemistry in people who form calcium kidney stones, using lemon juice or lemonade as a citrate source. Results disagree: some small studies saw higher urinary citrate, while a crossover trial and a 2-year randomized trial did not, and the 2-year trial found no significant difference in new stones. In healthy volunteers, lemon juice taken with bread lowered the post-meal blood sugar peak compared with water. The acidic juice can wear tooth enamel, and heartburn was common in the longest trial. Peel extracts, essential oil, lemon balm and lemongrass are different materials.

Studied Dose Fresh lemon juice 60 mL twice daily for 2 years; about 85 mL a day for 3 months; 4 oz of reconstituted juice in 2 L of water a day for 6 days; 250 mL of lemon juice drink with a 100 g bread meal. Lemon flavonoid extract (Eriomin) 200 to 800 mg a day for 12 weeks.
Active Compound Lemon juice and fruit (Citrus limon). The juice is rich in citric acid (about 1.44 g per ounce of fresh juice) and supplies vitamin C (38.7 mg per 100 g). Lemon juice and peel also contain the flavanone eriocitrin, which is concentrated in separately sold lemon flavonoid extracts such as Eriomin.

Benefits

Urinary citrate with fresh lemon juice or lemonade

In 30 adults with low urinary citrate who formed calcium stones, about 85 mL a day of fresh lemon juice for 3 months raised urinary citrate 2.5-fold, against 0.8-fold with diet advice alone and 3.5-fold with prescription potassium citrate. Other controlled studies disagree: lemonade did not raise urinary citrate significantly in a crossover trial or a water-controlled study, and neither did fresh juice in a 2-year randomized trial.

Supported by Trial 2, Trial 1

Urine composition in a two-year fresh lemon juice trial

In 203 adults with recurrent calcium oxalate stones on a standard diet, 60 mL of fresh lemon juice twice daily did not raise 24-hour urinary citrate compared with no juice. New stones formed in 21% versus 31% of patients, a difference that was not statistically significant, and only about half were still taking the juice at two years. Urinary sodium fell more with juice at 6 months, but that difference later disappeared.

Supported by Trial 1, Trial 2

Blood glucose after a bread meal taken with lemon juice

In healthy volunteers, drinking 250 mL of lemon juice drink with 100 g of bread lowered the average blood glucose peak by 30% and delayed it by more than 35 minutes compared with water, while black tea had no effect. In a second crossover study of 10 people, blood glucose 55 minutes after the meal was 35% lower with lemon juice. These were single-meal tests, and in the first study lemon juice did not change food intake at a later meal.

Supported by Trial 5, Trial 6

Vitamin C and citric acid content of the juice

USDA data list 38.7 mg of vitamin C and 22 kcal per 100 g of raw lemon juice, and one lemon yields about 48 g of juice, or roughly 19 mg of vitamin C. In laboratory analysis, fresh lemon juice held 1.44 g of citric acid per ounce, while bottled and powdered lemonades held only 0.03 to 0.22 g per ounce, so commercial lemonade is not a substitute for the juice.

Supported by Trial 1, Trial 6

Lemon flavonoid extract (eriocitrin) in a 12-week placebo trial

This is a separate material from the juice. In a double-blind trial of 103 adults with prediabetes, a lemon flavonoid extract that is 70% eriocitrin, at 200 to 800 mg a day, lowered fasting glucose by about 5% and HbA1c by about 2% over 12 weeks while placebo did not, with no change in lipids or weight. The extract maker funded the study, and it has its own profile on this site.

Supported by Trial 8

Blood pressure tracked alongside lemon intake and daily walking

In 101 middle-aged Japanese women who recorded their lemon intake and steps for 5 months, eating more lemon and walking more were each linked to a smaller change in systolic blood pressure. This was an observational study with no control group, lemon intake and walking tended to go together, and two authors worked for a food and beverage company, so it cannot show that lemon lowers blood pressure.

Supported by Trial 7

Mechanism of action

1

Citric acid as a dietary source of urinary citrate

Citrate is a natural inhibitor of calcium crystal formation in urine, and lemon juice is rich in citric acid. Unlike orange juice, lemonade delivers its citrate with little alkali: in a controlled crossover study, orange juice raised urine pH and citrate while lemonade did not, which may help explain why results with lemon differ between studies.

2

Acidity slows starch digestion in a meal

The researchers who ran the bread trials propose that the acid in lemon juice stops salivary amylase, the enzyme that starts breaking down starch, so glucose is released more slowly. In their MRI study, lemon juice also increased stomach secretions and sped up gastric emptying, yet still lowered the blood glucose response compared with water.

3

Effects in animal and laboratory models

In rats given chemicals that cause calcium oxalate deposits, lemon juice given by stomach tube prevented crystal deposits in the kidney. In a lab test on cow teeth, lemon juice caused more enamel loss than most other drinks tested. These are animal and laboratory findings, not results in people.

Clinical trials

1
Fresh Lemon Juice vs No Supplement for 2 Years: Randomized PROBE Trial
PubMed

Single-center, prospective, randomized, open-label trial with blinded endpoint assessment (NCT01217372) of fresh lemon juice added to a standard diet versus diet alone. The study received no funding. (Ruggenenti et al. 2022, EClinicalMedicine)

203 adults with recurrent idiopathic calcium oxalate kidney stones in Bergamo, Italy, all prescribed a standard diet (the 16% with low urinary citrate also took potassium citrate in both groups); 100 received 60 mL of fresh lemon juice twice daily and 103 no supplement.

The primary outcome was not met: stones recurred in 21 of 100 versus 32 of 103 patients over 2 years (hazard ratio 0.62, 95% CI 0.35 to 1.07, P = 0.089). Adherence fell to 48% by year two; an exploratory one-year analysis favored lemon juice. Lemon juice did not raise 24-hour urinary citrate. Gastrointestinal complaints were more frequent with lemon juice (37% vs 8%), mostly heartburn (21% vs 1%).

2
Lemon Juice vs Potassium Citrate vs Diet Advice: 3-Month Randomized Study
PubMed

Prospective randomized three-arm study of fresh lemon juice, prescription potassium citrate or dietary recommendations alone, with blood and 24-hour urine tests before and after. Funding not stated in the abstract. (Aras et al. 2008, Urol Res)

30 adults with low urinary citrate and calcium urinary stones in Istanbul, Turkey, 10 per group; lemon juice dose 60 mEq a day (about 85 mL).

Post-treatment urinary citrate differed significantly between groups, rising 2.5-fold with lemon juice, 3.5-fold with potassium citrate and 0.8-fold with diet advice. Urinary calcium fell only in the lemon juice and potassium citrate groups. Urinary oxalate did not change, and blood tests did not change in any group. A small trial measuring urine markers, not new stones.

3
Lemonade vs Potassium Citrate: Prospective Crossover in Stone Formers
PubMed

Prospective crossover comparison of lemonade therapy and potassium citrate, each against baseline 24-hour urine collections. Funding not stated in the abstract. (Koff et al. 2007, Urology)

21 patients with kidney stones at Walter Reed Army Medical Center.

Lemonade did not significantly improve urinary citrate or urine pH, while potassium citrate improved both. Urine volume was higher on lemonade than on potassium citrate. Neither changed uric acid significantly.

4
Lemonade vs Orange Juice vs Water: Randomized Crossover on a Metabolic Diet
PubMed

Randomized crossover study under a constant metabolic diet comparing distilled water (control), orange juice and lemonade on 24-hour urine acid-base and stone-risk measures. PubMed lists NIH extramural support. (Odvina 2006, Clin J Am Soc Nephrol)

13 volunteers: 9 healthy adults and 4 stone formers.

Compared with water, orange juice raised urinary pH and citrate, but lemonade did not, even though citrate content was comparable. Orange juice also lowered calculated calcium oxalate supersaturation. For lemonade the result versus the water control was null on urine citrate and pH.

5
Lemon Juice, Tea or Water With Bread: Randomized Crossover Glucose Trial
PubMed

Randomized crossover trial of 100 g of bread eaten with 250 mL of water, black tea or lemon juice, with finger-prick glucose for 180 minutes and a meal 3 hours later. Funded by a doctoral grant; no conflicts declared. (Freitas et al. 2021, Eur J Nutr)

Healthy adult volunteers; the number is not given in the abstract or on the publisher page.

Lemon juice lowered the mean blood glucose peak by 30% (P < 0.01) and delayed it to 78 minutes versus 41 minutes with water (P < 0.0001). Tea had no effect on glucose. None of the drinks changed food intake at the later meal. A single-meal test in healthy people.

6
Lemon Juice With Bread and Gastric Emptying: Randomized Crossover MRI Study
PubMed

Randomized crossover study (NCT03265392) of bread with water, water-diluted lemon juice or black tea, tracking stomach volume by MRI, finger-prick glucose and appetite ratings over 180 minutes. (Freitas et al. 2022, Eur J Nutr)

10 participants.

Compared with water, lemon juice increased stomach content volume about 1.5-fold at 30 minutes, emptied the stomach 1.5 times faster and gave 35% lower blood glucose at 55 minutes (P = 0.039). Appetite ratings did not differ between meals. Tea had no effect.

7
Daily Lemon Intake, Walking and Blood Pressure: 5-Month Observational Study
PubMed

Observational study (no randomization or control group) correlating self-recorded lemon intake and pedometer steps with changes in body, blood and blood pressure measures. Two co-authors were from Pokka Sapporo Food and Beverage; no conflicts declared. (Kato et al. 2014, J Nutr Metab)

101 middle-aged women in a lemon-growing island area of Hiroshima, Japan, eating about 0.47 lemons a day on average.

Lemon intake and daily steps each correlated negatively with the change in systolic blood pressure, and in regression analysis steps had the stronger link. Lemon intake and steps tended to go together. Weight, blood fats and insulin rose over the winter study period. Correlation only; it cannot show cause.

8
Lemon Flavonoid Extract (Eriomin) in Prediabetes: 12-Week Placebo-Controlled RCT
PubMed

Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of a lemon flavonoid extract (70% eriocitrin) at three doses, a separate material from lemon juice. Supported by a grant from the maker, Ingredients by Nature. (Ribeiro et al. 2019, Phytother Res)

103 adults with prediabetes in Brazil, average age 49, randomized to placebo or 200, 400 or 800 mg a day.

All three doses had similar effects: fasting glucose fell by about 5%, insulin resistance by 7%, HbA1c by about 2% and CRP by 12%, while the placebo group did not improve; 24% of treated patients no longer met prediabetes criteria. Lipids, weight and diet did not change. Results apply to this extract, not to juice.

Side effects and drug interactions

Common Potential side effects

Tooth enamel: lemon juice is strongly acidic. In a lab test on cow teeth it caused more enamel loss than most other drinks tested, and dental erosion or sensitivity was reported in 2% of lemon juice users versus none of the controls in a 2-year trial, a difference that was not statistically significant.
Heartburn and stomach upset: in the 2-year trial, gastrointestinal complaints affected 37% of people taking 60 mL of lemon juice twice daily versus 8% of controls, mostly heartburn (21% versus 1%). A systematic review also noted that minor adverse events may be more common with lemon juice.
Commercial lemonade holds far less citric acid than fresh juice: laboratory tests found ready-to-drink and powdered lemonades held 0.03 to 0.22 g of citric acid per ounce versus 1.44 g in fresh lemon juice.
Lemon essential oil, used in aromatherapy and on the skin, is not a food and is outside the scope of this page.

Important Drug interactions

Prescription citrate for kidney stones: in studies that included potassium citrate, lemon juice or lemonade raised urinary citrate less than the medicine or not significantly, so it should not replace a prescribed medicine without your doctor's advice.
No dedicated drug interaction studies of lemon juice are cited here; if you take prescription medicine, check with your pharmacist.

Standardized & branded forms of Lemon Fruit and Juice (Citrus limon)

Trademarked forms of Lemon Fruit and Juice (Citrus limon) with their own profiles on NutraSmarts. Results from one branded form do not automatically carry over to another, so check each profile for the studies run on that specific product:

Metabolic Health
Eriocitrin / Eriomin® (Lemon Flavonoid)
Eriocitrin (eriodictyol 7-O-rutinoside) is a flavanone found in lemon (Citrus limon) juice…

More Kidney/Urinary Tract Ingredients

Kidney/Urinary Tract
Cranberry
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) is taken as juice, capsules or whole fruit powder for ur…
Kidney/Urinary Tract
Pacran® (Whole Cranberry Fruit Powder — Givaudan/Naturex)
Pacran is a whole cranberry fruit powder from Givaudan, standardized to more than 1.5% pro…
Kidney/Urinary Tract
Pygeum (African Plum / Prunus Africana)
Pygeum is a bark extract from the African plum tree (Prunus africana). It has been studied…
Kidney/Urinary Tract
Nettle Root (Urtica dioica)
Stinging nettle root (Urtica dioica) is a different plant part from nettle leaf and is use…

Frequently asked questions about Lemon Fruit and Juice (Citrus limon)

Does drinking lemon water raise citrate in urine?

Sometimes. In a 3-month randomized study, about 85 mL of fresh lemon juice a day raised urinary citrate 2.5-fold, compared with 0.8-fold on diet advice alone. But a crossover study and a water-controlled study found lemonade did not raise urinary citrate significantly, and a 2-year trial of 60 mL twice daily found no rise either. Anyone who forms kidney stones should follow their doctor's plan.

Does lemon juice change blood sugar after a meal?

In two small crossover studies in healthy people, a lemon juice drink taken with 100 g of bread lowered and delayed the blood glucose peak compared with water. The researchers think the acid slows starch digestion. These were single-meal tests; no long-term trials of lemon juice on blood sugar are cited here.

How much vitamin C is in a lemon?

USDA data list 38.7 mg of vitamin C per 100 g of raw lemon juice. One lemon yields about 48 g of juice, which is roughly 19 mg of vitamin C.

Are lemon balm, lemongrass and lemon verbena the same as lemon?

No. Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) and lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora) are unrelated plants named for their lemony scent, and each has its own profile. This page covers the fruit, juice and peel of Citrus limon only. Lemon essential oil, used in aromatherapy, is also a different material.

What is Lemon Fruit and Juice?

Lemon (Citrus limon) is a citrus fruit used mostly for its juice, which is one of the richest food sources of citric acid: fresh juice holds about 1.44 g per ounce. Raw lemon juice also supplies about 39 mg of vitamin C per 100 g, so the juice of one lemon gives roughly 19 mg.

What is Lemon Fruit and Juice used for?

Lemon Fruit and Juice is researched primarily for Kidney/Urinary Tract and Metabolic Health. In 30 adults with low urinary citrate who formed calcium stones, about 85 mL a day of fresh lemon juice for 3 months raised urinary citrate 2.5-fold, against 0.8-fold with diet advice alone and 3.5-fold with prescription potassium citrate.

What is the recommended dosage of Lemon Fruit and Juice?

The clinically studied dose is Fresh lemon juice 60 mL twice daily for 2 years; about 85 mL a day for 3 months; 4 oz of reconstituted juice in 2 L of water a day for 6 days; 250 mL of lemon juice drink with a 100 g bread meal. Always follow the product label and check with a healthcare provider for personal advice.

Is Lemon Fruit and Juice safe, and does it have side effects?

Side effects and cautions reported for Lemon Fruit and Juice include: Tooth enamel: lemon juice is strongly acidic. In a lab test on cow teeth it caused more enamel loss than most other drinks tested, and dental erosion or sensitivity was reported in 2% of lemon juice users versus none of the controls in a 2-year trial, a difference that was not st… It may also interact with some medications. Lemon Fruit and Juice is not right for everyone, so check with a healthcare provider first if you are pregnant or breastfeeding, have a medical condition, or take prescription medication.

Does Lemon Fruit and Juice interact with any medications?

Possible interactions include: Prescription citrate for kidney stones: in studies that included potassium citrate, lemon juice or lemonade raised urinary citrate less than the medicine or not significantly, so it should not replace a prescribed medicine without your doctor's advice. If you take prescription medication, check with a pharmacist or doctor before using it.

How strong is the scientific evidence for Lemon Fruit and Juice?

NutraSmarts rates the evidence for Lemon Fruit and Juice as Limited (2 out of 5). It is backed by 8 study summaries and 17 cited references summarized on this page. A higher rating reflects more, larger, and better-designed human studies.

References(17 citations)

Evidence ratings on NutraSmarts are based on the totality of human clinical research, with emphasis on randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews. The references below directly support claims made throughout this page.

  1. Aras B, Kalfazade N, Tuğcu V, Kemahli E, Ozbay B, Polat H, Taşçi AI. Can lemon juice be an alternative to potassium citrate in the treatment of urinary calcium stones in patients with hypocitraturia? A prospective randomized study. Urol Res. 2008;36(6):313-7. doi: 10.1007/s00240-008-0152-6.PubMedUsed to support: Prospective randomized study of 30 adults with low-citrate calcium stones split into three groups: about 85 mL a day of fresh lemon juice (60 mEq), potassium citrate 60 mEq a day, or dietary advice only, for 3 months. Urinary citrate rose 2.5-fold with lemon juice, 3.5-fold with potassium citrate and 0.8-fold with advice only, and post-treatment citrate differed significantly between groups. Urinary calcium fell only in the lemon juice and potassium citrate groups; blood tests did not change.
  2. Ruggenenti P, Caruso MR, Cortinovis M, Perna A, Peracchi T, Giuliano GA, Rota S, Brambilla P, Invernici G, Villa D, Diadei O, Trillini M, Natali G, Remuzzi G. Fresh lemon juice supplementation for the prevention of recurrent stones in calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis: A pragmatic, prospective, randomised, open, blinded endpoint (PROBE) trial. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;43:101227. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101227.PubMedUsed to support: Single-center randomized open trial with blinded endpoint assessment in 203 adults with recurrent calcium oxalate stones, all on a standard diet: fresh lemon juice 60 mL twice daily versus no supplement for 2 years. Recurrence was 21 of 100 versus 32 of 103 (hazard ratio 0.62, P = 0.089, not significant); adherence fell from 68% at one year to 48% at two years. Lemon juice did not raise 24-hour urinary citrate. Heartburn was reported by 21% versus 1% and dental erosion or sensitivity by 2% versus 0%. The study received no funding.
  3. Koff SG, Paquette EL, Cullen J, Gancarczyk KK, Tucciarone PR, Schenkman NS. Comparison between lemonade and potassium citrate and impact on urine pH and 24-hour urine parameters in patients with kidney stone formation. Urology. 2007;69(6):1013-6. doi: 10.1016/j.urology.2007.02.008.PubMedUsed to support: Prospective crossover trial in 21 stone-forming patients comparing lemonade therapy with potassium citrate against baseline 24-hour urine. Potassium citrate, but not lemonade, raised urinary citrate and pH significantly; urine volume was higher with lemonade than with potassium citrate. Neither changed uric acid significantly.
  4. Odvina CV. Comparative value of orange juice versus lemonade in reducing stone-forming risk. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;1(6):1269-74. doi: 10.2215/CJN.00800306.PubMedUsed to support: Randomized crossover study under a constant metabolic diet in 13 volunteers (9 healthy, 4 stone formers) who drank distilled water, orange juice or lemonade. Orange juice, but not lemonade, delivered alkali and raised urinary pH and citrate compared with the water control, despite comparable citrate content. The author concluded orange juice had greater alkalinizing and citraturic effects than lemonade. PubMed lists NIH extramural support.
  5. Seltzer MA, Low RK, McDonald M, Shami GS, Stoller ML. Dietary manipulation with lemonade to treat hypocitraturic calcium nephrolithiasis. J Urol. 1996;156(3):907-9..PubMedUsed to support: Uncontrolled before and after study in 12 patients with low urinary citrate who were noncompliant with or intolerant of prescription citrate: 4 ounces of reconstituted lemon juice (5.9 g citric acid) diluted to 2 liters of water daily for 6 days. Urinary citrate rose from an average of 142 to 346 mg a day, 11 of 12 patients increased, and urine volume did not change. Two patients reported mild indigestion. No control group.
  6. Kang DE, Sur RL, Haleblian GE, Fitzsimons NJ, Borawski KM, Preminger GM. Long-term lemonade based dietary manipulation in patients with hypocitraturic nephrolithiasis. J Urol. 2007;177(4):1358-62; discussion 1362; quiz 1591. doi: 10.1016/j.juro.2006.11.058.PubMedUsed to support: Retrospective review of 11 adults on lemonade therapy for a mean of 44 months, compared with 11 age- and sex-matched patients on prescription potassium citrate. Urinary citrate rose by a mean of 383 mg a day with lemonade (10 of 11 patients) and 482 mg a day with potassium citrate. The fall in stone formation rate on lemonade, from 1.00 to 0.13 stones per patient per year, was not statistically significant. The authors called for a randomized trial.
  7. Asher GN, Viprakasit DP, Aymes SE, Lusk JB, Ross S, Baker C, Rains C, Wright ST, Kahwati LC. Prevention of Recurrent Nephrolithiasis in Adults and Children : A Systematic Review. Ann Intern Med. 2026;179(5):696-707. doi: 10.7326/ANNALS-25-04452.PubMedUsed to support: Systematic review for PCORI and AHRQ of 31 studies (26 randomized trials) on preventing recurrent kidney stones. Fluid, diet, thiazides, alkali therapy and allopurinol may reduce recurrence in adults with calcium stones (low strength of evidence); evidence on other interventions was limited. The review found there may be more minor adverse events with lemon juice. Studies with fewer than 30 participants per group were excluded.
  8. Rahman F, Birowo P, Widyahening IS, Rasyid N. Effect of citrus-based products on urine profile: A systematic review and meta-analysis. F1000Res. 2017;6:220. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.10976.1.PubMedUsed to support: Systematic review and meta-analysis of citrus-based products in general (lemonade, orange, grapefruit, lime and other juices, not lemon alone): 10 studies, 8 pooled. Compared with control, citrus products raised urinary citrate (mean difference about 124 mg a day) and urine pH slightly, with no differences in urine volume, calcium, oxalate or uric acid. The authors reported no competing interests.
  9. Penniston KL, Nakada SY, Holmes RP, Assimos DG. Quantitative assessment of citric acid in lemon juice, lime juice, and commercially-available fruit juice products. J Endourol. 2008;22(3):567-70. doi: 10.1089/end.2007.0304.PubMedUsed to support: Laboratory analysis by ion chromatography of 21 commercial juices and juice concentrates and the juice of three fruits. Fresh lemon juice contained 1.44 g of citric acid per ounce and lemon juice concentrate 1.10 g per ounce; ready-to-drink and mix-with-water lemonades ranged from 0.03 to 0.22 g per ounce.
  10. Freitas D, Boué F, Benallaoua M, Airinei G, Benamouzig R, Le Feunteun S. Lemon juice, but not tea, reduces the glycemic response to bread in healthy volunteers: a randomized crossover trial. Eur J Nutr. 2021;60(1):113-122. doi: 10.1007/s00394-020-02228-x.PubMedUsed to support: Randomized crossover trial in healthy volunteers: 100 g of bread with 250 mL of water, black tea or lemon juice. Lemon juice lowered the mean blood glucose peak by 30% (P < 0.01) and delayed it from 41 to 78 minutes compared with water; tea had no effect. No drink changed food intake at a meal 3 hours later. Funding was a doctoral grant; the authors reported no conflicts of interest.
  11. Freitas D, Boué F, Benallaoua M, Airinei G, Benamouzig R, Lutton E, Jourdain L, Dubuisson RM, Maître X, Darrasse L, Le Feunteun S. Glycemic response, satiety, gastric secretions and emptying after bread consumption with water, tea or lemon juice: a randomized crossover intervention using MRI. Eur J Nutr. 2022;61(3):1621-1636. doi: 10.1007/s00394-021-02762-2.PubMedUsed to support: Randomized crossover study in 10 participants who ate 100 g of bread with 250 mL of water, water-diluted lemon juice or black tea, with stomach contents tracked by MRI. With lemon juice, gastric content volume 30 minutes after the meal was about 1.5 times higher, emptying was 1.5 times faster, and blood glucose at 55 minutes was 35% lower than with water (P = 0.039). Appetite ratings did not differ. Tea had no effect. Registered as NCT03265392.
  12. Kato Y, Domoto T, Hiramitsu M, Katagiri T, Sato K, Miyake Y, Aoi S, Ishihara K, Ikeda H, Umei N, Takigawa A, Harada T. Effect on blood pressure of daily lemon ingestion and walking. J Nutr Metab. 2014;2014:912684. doi: 10.1155/2014/912684.PubMedUsed to support: Observational study, not a randomized trial: 101 middle-aged women on islands near Hiroshima, Japan, self-recorded daily lemon intake (about 0.47 lemons a day on average) and wore pedometers for 5 months. Lemon intake and daily steps each correlated with a smaller change in systolic blood pressure, and lemon intake and steps tended to correlate with each other. Two co-authors were from the research division of Pokka Sapporo Food and Beverage; the paper declares no conflicts of interest.
  13. Ribeiro CB, Ramos FM, Manthey JA, Cesar TB. Effectiveness of Eriomin® in managing hyperglycemia and reversal of prediabetes condition: A double-blind, randomized, controlled study. Phytother Res. 2019;33(7):1921-1933. doi: 10.1002/ptr.6386.PubMedUsed to support: Double-blind randomized trial in 103 adults with prediabetes of Eriomin, a citrus flavonoid supplement (70% eriocitrin, 5% hesperidin, 4% naringin, 1% didymin), at 200, 400 or 800 mg a day versus a cornstarch placebo for 12 weeks. All doses lowered fasting glucose by about 5%, insulin resistance, HbA1c by about 2% and some inflammatory markers, while the placebo group did not improve; lipids and weight did not change. Supported by a grant from the extract maker, Ingredients by Nature.
  14. Zimmer S, Kirchner G, Bizhang M, Benedix M. Influence of various acidic beverages on tooth erosion. Evaluation by a new method. PLoS One. 2015;10(6):e0129462. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129462.PubMedUsed to support: Laboratory study on bovine teeth: enamel and dentin specimens were immersed for 7 days in 10 drinks. Lemon juice produced the largest enamel mass loss (32.0 mg), significantly more than all other drinks except Sprite and apple juice; tap water caused none. A lab erosion model, not a study of people.
  15. Touhami M, Laroubi A, Elhabazi K, Loubna F, Zrara I, Eljahiri Y, Oussama A, Grases F, Chait A. Lemon juice has protective activity in a rat urolithiasis model. BMC Urol. 2007;7:18. doi: 10.1186/1471-2490-7-18.PubMedUsed to support: Animal study in male rats given ethylene glycol and ammonium chloride to induce calcium oxalate deposits. Lemon juice by stomach tube at 100% or 75% strength prevented the crystal deposits seen in untreated rats and blocked the rise in kidney calcium. Six rats per group; not human evidence.
  16. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Lemon juice, raw (FDC ID 167747). FoodData Central, SR Legacy. USDA FoodData Central. 2019;SR Legacy record last updated 04/01/2019; accessed 2026..SourceUsed to support: Not PubMed-indexed (USDA nutrient database). Per 100 g raw lemon juice: 38.7 mg vitamin C, 22 kcal, 0.3 g dietary fiber. One lemon yields 48 g of juice, which works out to about 19 mg of vitamin C.
  17. Ramos FMM, Ribeiro CB, Cesar TB, Milenkovic D, Cabral L, Noronha MF, Sivieri K. Lemon flavonoids nutraceutical (Eriomin®) attenuates prediabetes intestinal dysbiosis: A double-blind randomized controlled trial. Food Sci Nutr. 2023;11(11):7283-7295. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.3654.PubMedUsed to support: Identifies Eriomin as a lemon flavonoid nutraceutical made of 70% eriocitrin, 5% hesperidin and 4% naringin, and describes eriocitrin as a citrus flavonoid from lemon juice and peel. In this 12-week double-blind trial in adults with prediabetes, 200 mg a day changed gut bacteria composition and was reported with a 6% fall in blood glucose and a 22% rise in GLP-1 within the Eriomin group, with no difference from placebo reported for either. Cited here for the identity of the extract.